Experience and Perception of Space

Prior cognition can hold an grounding consequence on our perceptual experience about a infinite. Our behavioural response inside a infinite is a decision and a contemplation of our anterior judgement of the infinite. Human encephalon along with seven other senses that include eyes, nose, ears, lingua, skeleton and musculus identify and interpret information and semen to a decision, which is normally known as perceptual experience. This procedure differs from single to single. This can take to different perceptual experience about the same infinite by different persons as they assign different significances to what they perceive. In order to deduce to a percept one needs to undergo the procedure of self-contemplation. This procedure of self-contemplation has been described as observation and contemplation of one’s ain witting ideas and scruples, that involves acquiring familiar with a infinite by deriving practical apprehension of the topic. Hence it becomes really of import to non acquire affected by a 3rd individuals percept but instead follow and rely on one’s ain experience. What a interior decorator or an designer is seeking to convey about the infinite should be brought to each person through his or her ain experience. This essay will be foregrounding that as a user of the infinite one doesn’t demand to hold a anterior cognition before sing it. It will be ideal for the user to deduce to a percept after sing the infinite through interaction of the senses and apprehension of the surrounding in world.The experience can be valuable if a individual does non hold a perceptual experience so that each individual has an single experience, which is non, influenced by person else’s perceptual experience. The subject will be discussed through instance surveies and relevant theories. Finnish designer, Juhani Pallasmaa said, â€Å"A work of art is a world merely when it is experienced, and sing a work of art means animating its dimension of feeling† ( Pallasmaa, 2005 ) . This quotation mark was said in context to explicating the importance of sing a infinite in order to associate to its world. When the user of the infinite personally undergoes its encompassing field he or she is able appreciate the infinite and besides at the same clip actively take portion in activities taking them to link with it in world. At times, experience can be really slippery and debatable. We might experience â€Å" confused, unsure, incoherent, unable to move when we are unable to organize anterior cognition and anterior wont to get by with the exigencies of the minute. â€Å" ( Roschelle 1995, parity. 67 ) Jeremy Roschelle references that pedagogues frequently aim at making experiences that engage pupils in actively bring forthing a sense of understanding the construct and tho ughts for themselves. They frequently inherit the feeling that it is indispensable for pupils to obtain anterior cognition to absorb new constructs. But harmonizing to the research, anterior cognition is characterized as opposing with the learning process, which frequently misguides pupils to unconventional interlingual rendition of constructs and therefore attempts to stamp down, destruct, or replace its influence. In drumhead, in order for new cognition to take the place of the anterior cognition, anterior cognition should must be confronted, challenged, destroyed or erased. ( Roschelle 1995, parity. 38 ) . As a consequence of anterior cognition and perceptual experiences organic structure tends to be thrown into a structured state of affairs where the game is already laid. Meaning where persons have to play harmonizing to the regulations established already. Hence, research workers have described prior cognition as â€Å"presumptions† â€Å"Alternative constructs, † â€Å"naive conceptions† and â€Å"misconceptions† ( Russell 1959 ) . Interior designers of synergistic experiences ought to be sensitive to the diverse position that will be brought by persons during their first manus experience. For illustration, museums and exhibitions are decently situated as finishs for conceptual alteration. They offer visitant with freedom and chances to interact with infinite and objects straight. Attending to the jobs that occur in an experiential exchange, from the position of the scholar and leting infinite and clip for enquiry to originate should be the cardinal concern of the interior decorator. Another concern should be focused on supplying tools that facilitate enquiry to be utile and effectual. Inquiry appears non in the caput, nevertheless in immediate interaction with the universe. Meaning that the act of enquiry appears when the person is invariably seeking cognition and information by oppugning the infinite. To win, scholars need to exemplify, look into ideas and phenomena in order to accomplish successful analysis of penchants by experimentation. Try to ease one person ‘s perceptual experience about a infinite with another can frequently bit by bit stop up traveling curious ideas of different single towards a typical land. Further more different perceptual experiences can stop up re-portraying, re-situating, and reconstructing the whole first manus experience of the visitant in entirety. In drumhead the pedagogues must seek for cases in which anterior information becomes slippery and debatable, and purpose to bring forth three conditions viz. : clip, devices and conversations that facilitate enquiry to come on successfully. First, interior decorators must look out to polish former cognition, and non force scholars understanding with their ain. Secondly interior decorators must anticipate a long term larning methodological analysis, of which the short-run experience will play an of import portion. Interior designers must remember that larning relies on upon societal association ; treatme nts shape the construction and substance of the thoughts that scholars develop. Prior cognition can be as mere informations but the remainder must arise from seeing, gestating, sing and prosecuting. Learning of things, which are described as information by familiarity, is fundamentally more straightforward than any information of truths. The word familiarity here is described as the cognition by experience of something. Hence we should state that holding known something through experience is independent of any intervention or any cognition gained by description. Hence familiarising with things while seeing and touching them aid in larning and knowing of the truth. â€Å" No description in the literature can to the full convey the character and fundamental law of a learners’ anterior cognition † ( Roschelle 1995, parity. 88 ) . Disagring to this statement in my position the lone disadvantage of cognition by description is that rather a spot of our penetration is left dubious and the cognition remains perplexing until understood decently. This leads to an influenced perceptual experience without really being physically acquainted with the infinite. â€Å"The cardina l rule in the analysis of propositions incorporating descriptions is this: Every proposition which we can understand must be composed entirely of components with which we are acquainted.† ( Russell 2009, ch.5 ) While adverting several guidelines for construing anterior cognition, Jeremy Roschelle said â€Å"be wary of sing anterior cognition as an enemy fortresses that is incorrect, alternate, or theoretical in character, and alternatively see prior cognition as a disorganised aggregation of edifice blocks† ( Roschelle 1995, parity. 88 ) . Agring to this statement in my position prior cognition can be helter-skelter and confounding which is non characterized by practical judgement and logical thinking. Rather it is theoretical in nature that can be inclusive of an already influenced perceptual experience. Therefore doing the user of the infinite derive to a perceptual experience even before an person is confronted with a infinite in reality.In the book â€Å"How Learni ng Works† ( Ambrose, 2010 ) , it is mentioned that in order to construct complex and powerful learning constructions increasingly, an person may stop up hammering connexions between antecedently gained cognition and new information. It is possible that persons may non pull applicable or relevant connexions with the anterior cognition instantly. In this event where they do non pull upon applicable connexions with former information and basically if that information is still concealed or hidden, it may non promote the integrating and combination of new cognition. Ansel Adams comments that, any person should non hold the privilege to pull off what other single ought to see, do or bring forth. To assemble trust in the inventive psyche of an person, every person must be urged to bring out his or her penetrations and feelings. Furthermore, Husserl brings up that the connexion between the object of information and the subjective presentation of cognizing must be explored and clarii ¬?ed in the event that we wish to carry through a more important comprehension of the possibility of cognition. In drumhead no single user should find what the other user must detect. Rather the connexions must be drawn after researching and sing the infinite as it unfolds in its milieus. Next, the thing that involvements different persons is frequently described to them and is merely known to be echt. However it is non valid as they do non hold any familiarity with it and are besides non familiarized with the suggestion themselves. These lines are mentioning towards the cognition by description which is directed towards any phrase â€Å"in the signifier of â€Å"a so and so† or â€Å"the so and so†Ã¢â‚¬  ( Russell 2009, ch.5 ) Harmonizing to author, this signifier of a phrase should be called an equivocal phrase which is does non hold one obvious significance and is unfastened to more than one reading. The dominant factor of cognition by description is that it makes it possible for the user to go through beyond the bounds of their personal experience. In malice of the fact that user can merely cognize truths, which are wholly composed of footings which they have experienced in world, user can yet hold a anterior cognition by description of infinite which is ne'er experienced before. But â€Å"In position of the really narrow scope of our immediate experience, this consequence is critical, and until it is understood, much of our cognition must stay cryptic and hence doubtful.† ( Russell 2009, ch.5 ) In sum-up, for an equivocal or dubious description to turn into a logical description characterized by sound logical thinking, it is necessary for the user of the infinite to edify his or her vision images into spacial experience by traveling in and out of infinites. For repairing a users behavior inside a infinite, spacial elements like shadows, visible radiation, distance and he ight drama a cardinal function. In order to hold an gratifying experience the user must be free of any anterior description that may move an obstructor in the spacial experience of the user. It is believed that there are assorted issues associated with equivocal descriptions. To get down with, it seems that, â€Å"when we make a statement about something merely known by description, we frequently intend to do our statement, non in the signifier affecting the description, but about the existent thing described† ( Russell 2009, ch.5 ) . In these lines the writer is merely seeking conveying up that, someway, it must be imaginable to run into these ailments, but it is invalid to organize a judgement or enchant a guess without groking it mentally and go throughing a judgement full of premises about it. In decision, this essay has references that how forging person else perceptual experience can destroy the first manus experience of the user of the infinite. Facts or sentiments drilled inside the head of the user by some other single can take to perceptual experience can consequence the experience and may non promote and welcome new cognition to come in. Another point the essay has discussed is that anterior cognition can be as mere informations but the remainder must arise from seeing, gestating, sing and prosecuting. Hence, cognition would be extremely good in organizing an apprehension that is better suited and good topographic points in forepart of the user of a infinite through proper logical thinking and logics. It becomes necessary to put definitions for footings such as cognizing perceiving, believing etc. Prior cognition remains dubious until and unless it is characterized by the procedure of human observation and acquisition. Last, it must remember that larning relies on u pon societal association, interaction and experience within a infinite. Discussions shape the construction and substance of the thoughts that a user develops. Appreciating the infinite by fluxing in and out of infinites accelerates and give rise to a perceptual experience that is non formed or shaped by a different individuals perceptual experience. These points have demonstrated that a user of a infinite doesn’t needfully have anterior cognition before sing a infinite.

Importance of Sex Education Essay

As younger generations mature into teens, they will be exposed to all sorts of materials in their daily lives. Sex education is of great importance when it comes to teenagers. This is because as individuals grow into teenagers, they observe changes to their bodies particularly in their sex organs and also their hormones. With the raging hormones present in their bodies and unnecessary exposure to materials from the TV and now the internet, teenagers will be curious and would definitely want to experiment on the new things that they discover. This is why sexual education is important. Most teens are immature and curious individuals who lack self-control. This explains the high number of teenage pregnancies. When it comes to teen pregnancy, most teenagers are not ready to have a child. In many cases, teenage girls who decide to raise the baby end up being single mothers as their partners are not committed enough to raise the child as both of them are too young and not equipped well enough to raise a child. Thanks to the introduction of sex education in the recent years, the numbers of teen pregnancies have been decreasing gradually. Another importance of sex education is to lower the rate of abortion. Pregnant teens are one of the main causes of abortion. This happens when teens get pregnant and they do not want to conceive their babies. There are many factors that contribute to this final decision to abort the pregnancy. Usually, the main factor that causes abortion in teen parents is the fact that they are not ready to make the big commitment to have a baby. Aside to that, another factor that contributes to abortion is teenagers getting raped. Furthermore, by educating teens on sex, rape cases can be prevented. There are certain male individuals that are aroused by how an individual of the opposite sex dresses. With the psychological aspects of sex education, teenagers can be taught to manage their sexual stimulation and control their raging hormones when they are faced with situations like this. In sex education, teens will be educated on how to suppress their hormones by doing physical activities like exercising. In females, this inhibits the production of sex steroid hormones like estrogen. As for males, testosterone levels are reduced. Hence, the urge to satisfy one’s sexual needs is greatly reduced. Besides that, sex education is also important to encourage and educate teens on the use of contraceptive methods to further prevent any unwanted pregnancies. For example, using a condom during sexual intercourse not only prevents unwanted pregnancy, it can also prevent sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV. Another good contraceptive method that can be exposed to teens during sex education is the birth control pill. This pill, which has to be taken regularly, contains two female hormones which prevents ovulation.

Percentage of Water In Popcorn Essay

The purpose of this lab was to find the percentage of water in each sample of popcorn in order to determine which brand of kernels: beta, gamma, or delta, all with different amounts of water, produced the best-popping popcorn. The amount of water in the popcorn affects the quality of the popcorn. When the water inside the kernel is heated above 100à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, the water turns into gas which causes the pressure inside the kernel to increase. The pressure of the gas expands the kernel, which causes it to pop. Quality was judged on the basis of the rate of the pops, the size of the popcorn, and how easily the popcorn burned. Each technique of popcorn was divided up into three piles in order to conduct three trials on each technique. A group of kernels was massed and then placed into a beaker, which was also massed. Then just enough oil was poured into the beaker to cover the bottom of the beaker with a thin film of oil. A piece of foil with tiny holes was placed over the beaker, and the beaker with the foil, oil, and kernels was massed. The kernels in the beaker were heated using a Bunsen burner. (See Figure 1 – Setup Diagram) While the kernels popped, the beaker was shaken in order to prevent the popped popcorn from burning and to shake the unpopped kernels to the bottom. Once all the kernels had popped, the beaker was removed from the Bunsen burner and set to cool. After it had cooled, the beaker with foil, oil, and kernels were massed again. The same steps were repeated for the rest of the samples and qualitative observations were made throughout the experiment. Multiple trials were used in this experiment to increase the chances of accuracy and to determine which data is reliable. If there were not multiple trials, then there is no way of knowing whether the data collected by one trial is accurate or completely inaccurate. To find the amount of water in each kernel, this formula was used: mass of unpopped popcorn – mass of popped popcorn à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100 = % of water in unpopped popcorn mass of unpopped popcorn The mass of the unpopped popcorn in the numerator was the mass of the kernels before they were popped added to the beaker, foil, and oil. The mass of the popped popcorn was the mass of the popped kernels added to the beaker, foil, and oil. The mass of unpopped popcorn in the denominator was the actual mass of the unpopped kernels massed alone. The beta kernels hold 11.1%, 11.3%, and 10.9% water for trials 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The gamma kernels are composed of 16.7%, 15.7%, and 14.8% water, while the delta kernels contain 19.4%, 17.0%, 19.0% water for trials 1, 2, and 3 respectively. (Refer to appendix for original data and calculations). See Table 1 – Percentage of Water in Popcorn Beta, Gamma, and Delta The data for beta was the most precise among the three different techniques. The data for delta fluctuated the most and was the least precise. According to my data, the delta kernels had the highest percentage of water and the beta kernels had the lowest percentage of water. The gamma brand was in between the two. In my qualitative observations, I observed that the gamma kernels popped the fastest, smoothly, and produced the largest popcorn. I observed that the delta kernels produced the medium-sized popcorn, and the beta kernels tended to burn very easily and produced the smallest popcorn. Basically, the beta brand of kernels was the worst popping popcorn, while the gamma brand of kernels produced the best popping popcorn. These results convey that too little water within kernels make bad popcorn, and too much water produces just medium-sized popcorn. From the overall calculations and averages, it can be concluded that 15-16% water in a kernel produces the best popcorn. To find the theoretical amount of water in the popcorn, the most accurate data of the class were added together and averaged. When compared to the class average, the average of my data was rather accurate. To find the percent error, this formula was used: Percent Error = ? theoretical value – actual value ? à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 100 Theoretical value My percent error for beta, gamma, and delta kernels was 0.90%, 4.46%, and 13.5% respectively. (See calculations in appendix) See Table 2 – Percent Error This percent error could have occurred while massing. Since there were several balanced used instead of just one, the masses could have differed. One balance was used for the kernels, while the beaker mass was found using a separate balance. The different balances could have lowered the accuracy of the masses. Another place where mass could have been inaccurate was when the popcorn was popped. Sometimes the popcorn was burned, while other times the popcorn was popped perfectly. If the popcorn was burnt, the mass was lowered by the release of CO2. Also, the duration of the heating of the popcorn was inconsistent. Since the popcorn of the same technique would still pop at different rates, it is impossible to control the time of the heating. But the longer the beaker is heated, the longer the oil inside is also heated and evaporating. So the longer the beaker is heated, the more gas escapes and the lower the mass will be, which will increase the percentage of water in the popcorn. Also, while the beakers were cooling off, some of the moisture could have been collected back in the beaker since the foil was not always taken off immediately. This would have added to the mass and lowered the percentage of water. To improve this lab, only one lab balance should be used during the entire experiment. Also, more care should be exercised when popping popcorn so that the popcorn does not burn. This could be done by lowering the heat and shaking the popcorn inside the beaker. Also, the foil on the beaker should be removed immediately after heating. In this lab, I discovered that more water in a kernel does not necessarily mean that it will produce larger popcorn, as I had initially had predicted. Ultimately, based on my data and the class average (theoretical value) 15-16% water in a kernel produces the best popcorn. I learned that the amount of water in the kernel affects the rate at which the kernel pops, more than it affects the size of the popped corn.

Kiowa song Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Kiowa song - Essay Example According the legends, Kiowa belonged to the Yellowstone River territories in Western Montana from where they migrated to the Black Hills. Their culture primarily centered on their associations with the Buffalo. Nearly all aspects of Kiowa life had internalized buffalo. For instance, their tepees, clothes, and moccasins were all prepared with buffalo skin. They used the whole buffalo for several daily life functions. In addition, buffalo had been central to Kiowa religion which is expressed in many rituals. For instance, Sun Dance, healing prayers, and ritualistic songs are strongly associated with Kiowa quest and honor for great buffalo herds (Hager). During nineteenth century, Kiowa culture was devastated by buffalo herd obliteration on Great Plains. With exceeding buffalo hunt by professional hunters, Kiowa culture and religion were also crushed. Buffalo hide served as a precursor of modern art tradition as Kiowa’s used it as their canvases for recording the intricate detai ls, story, and drawings of the fall of nomadic culture. In their encounter with white culture, imprisoned Kiowa warriors expressed their nostalgia and sorrow to ledger-book drawings. These drawings were acknowledged by white culture as elaborate roots of Indian art (Hager). Kiowa songs and dances originated from the tribal tradition and experiences of death and life.

Program Outcome 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Program Outcome 2 - Assignment Example For instance, Unisys Corporation conducts daily managerial briefing that involves all managers and their assistants from all the key departments. As a result of this, information trickles down to employees least in the hierarchy within the shortest period and through the relevant channels. While conducting my research, not only the affectivity of communication that caught my attention but also a strong and well defined leadership style. I applied the skills obtained from my business leadership class to ascertain the relevance of the leadership style in harmonizing the workforce. Supervisors and managers within various departments of this corporation ensure close monitoring of their crew to maximize on their potential. Employees are awarded bonuses for work well done, and this enhances their morale. For instance, the Human Resource department keeps a record of all these bonuses culminating to wholesome cash at the end of the month. My research indicated that this was a key factor to the success realized by the corporation since every employee delivers his or her best with the aim of earning bonuses from

High School and Chronicle of a Summer Film Essay

High School and Chronicle of a Summer Film - Essay Example This paper stresses that  despite being shot over a five-week period, from March to April 1968 in Philadelphia, Wiseman was scared of a lawsuit, so the film was not shown in Philadelphia at the time of its release in October of 1968. Chronicle of a Summer directed by Jean Rouch and Edgar Morin is a film where people talk about topics on the themes of French society and happiness in the regular workers among others and with those affirmations the movie producers make fictional moments taking into account their interviews. Later on, the people talk about the pictures made with their particular words and check whether the film got their level of reality. It is a French documentary shot during the summer of 1960, but the release date is October of 1961.  This discussion highlights that the film starts with a discussion between Rouch and Morin on whether it is conceivable to act earnestly before a camera. Wiseman likes to pick institutions as his subjects this is because of its limita tions to a geographical area providing the boundaries. He is very keen on observing the way organizations are run, the guidelines that they are controlled by the relationship between the general population who give services and the general population who receives services. In the chronicle of summer, Rouch wishes to capture the repercussions of the Algerian war and just before the blast of social mobs that came to dominate that decade in Paris.

GAAP Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GAAP - Term Paper Example These rules are widely accepted and used as a popular accounting method. â€Å"GAAP is established by the Financial Accounting Standards Board†. (InvestorWords2011) The GAAP first became a popular accounting method in the 1930’s and has been a popular method ever since. GAAP works in many different ways. The GAAP is not a required way of accounting but is preferred by many. GAAP is a way for companies to have their finances written out. The GAAP method is important and helps to insure accuracy and honesty. When businesses use the same accounting method it makes it easy to record and access materials. Statements prepared within this method are prepared with strict standards. Following standards for the GAAP method make it harder for accountants to have a chance for embezzlement or fraud. Accountants using the GAAP as a way to produce statements have very little room for error. When accountants do not use this method is when one should worry about the accuracy of the documents. It is important to remember that GAAP is a set of standards that must be followed. (Investopedia2011) Standards and rules for the GAAP are very important for creating financial documents. Financial documents prepared according to this method show accountants a specific way to prepare the documents. The rules show how to show an income, loss and many other accounting statements. There are over 100 rules that show different methods of reporting transactions. These methods are evaluated by the Financial Accounting Standards Board. This board regulates and exams the rules set out by the GAAP. There are many pros and cons to using the GAAP method. The method offers many positive things to the world of accounting. Before the GAAP there was never really a set method to creating financial documents. The GAAP rules and standards allow those preparing financial documents to prepare documents in the same manner. Preparing documents in the same manner can allow other

Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 5

Globalization - Essay Example In addition, technology facilitates constant connectivity, which has led to establishment of a current generation living in a globalized world. Therefore, tracking communication and interaction with technology through my Smartphone for a period of four-hours depicts that there are numerous features offered by these device. After tracking use of my technological devices such as Smartphone and laptop, I acquired understanding of the way people use technology to communicate. In this case, people are able to connect through social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter. In fact, accessibility to these social networking sites has been facilitated by the internet. Therefore, through my Smartphone, I was able to access information and services that I was interested in. Nonetheless, the internet plays a significant role in processes of reducing traditional barriers of communication across different parts of the world. During this period, I was using my laptop, and this made me realize that there are numerous software that have been developed along with protocols and standards aimed at enabling computers to interact through the internet. In fact, I was interacting with students from different parts of the world, thereby discussing issues regarding school projects. Therefore, collaboration platform has been developed in order to enable people share digital content (Friedman, 3). In fact, these collaboration platforms are referred to as flatteners, which expand opportunity through which people communicate and interact. These technological devices integrate internet functions, thereby making people’s lives more enjoyable. In fact, during this assessment period, I was able to watch new videos and play a game. Moreover, there are other emotional experiences, which are thrilling and exciting such watching a movie. Internet has become a social club since people have managed to develop and maintain friendships. For instance, during the assessment period, I had a g ood feeling of being socially connect with friends living in different parts of the world. In this case, we were able to interact and share some ideas, while making new friends. People have acquired ability to multitask, while using the internet and other technological devices. For instance, during the assessment period, I was logged into my Facebook account, whereby I was chatting with my friends; I was also logged into my tweeter account at the same time. Moreover, I was listening to Smartphone’s music, and I was still receiving calls from friends. In addition, during the same period, I got a chance to check my e-mail and play and online game. Therefore, use of technological devices among people in different parts of the world is increasing gradually with increases in levels of innovativeness and technological advancement. In addition, technology is used in order to achieve certain tasks in peoples’ lives such as learning and offering health care services. Part Two: Living Without Technology In order to understand the condition of living without technology, I conducted an assessment for a period of one hour. In this case, during this assessment, I refrained from using technological devices such as my laptop and Smartphone. On the other hand, I focused on using pens, paper and face-to-face conversation. Nevertheless, during this period, I was tempted to look at the messages and incoming calls from my friends on my Smartphone.

Ethics in criminal justice administration Essay

Ethics in criminal justice administration - Essay Example The prosecutor may come up with substantial evidence against the accused, but a professional defense lawyer could try to refute all of them using the specific guideliness involved in the law. This means that a case of the criminal could be win in the court because of the associated professionalism of holding on to the law. In other words, there could be probable linked up dilemma when it comes to ethics and professionalism in the criminal justice administration. There is also associated managerial approach when it comes to professional administration. One could potentially see this on the legalistic relationship between guards and the prisoners (Banks, 2004, p.134). However, guarding ethically would also mean doing the right thing, and performing what is right. This means that the coverage of criminal justice administration would go far beyond the bound of being legalistic in the administration of law, but ensuring what is the appropriate for the welfare of the prisoners. Thus, the c riminal justice administrators would be able to ensure the elimination of corrupt practices and make sure of fair treatment based on the context of law (Banks, 2004, p.134). However, ethics and professional behavior in the administration of criminal justice may potentially contradict. Professional behavoir may substantially pave the way for what seems to be right and appropriate. For example, the professional behavior of the defense lawyer may be proven by his ability to interpret the law and justify his reasons. Concerning this, there is a good chance for him to win the case of his client, who in reality should be guilty of a certain crime. This only implies that the presence of professionalism by simply adhering to the law has significant drawback as it may potentially conceal what is ethically appropriate. In professionalism, a defense lawyer for instance could orchestrate evidences that may sound appropriate for the law, but the bottom line is to nullify the value of the present ed evidences by the prosecutors and the witnesses. In other words, with professionalism, one would be able to win a case because of underlying technicalities involved within the context of law. Those who have strong interpretation of the law may be able to come up with a significant argument and supplement it with further proofs that could stand beyond reasonable doubt. It is therefore most likely for them to administer justice with their ability to persuade the court of what seems to be in line with law. Thus, provided that there is no substantial evidence, but in reality the accused is guilty, but there is no appropriate proofs beyond reasonable doubt, a professional defense lawyer may significantly win the case of his client. There is absence of ethics here especially if the accused who happens to be guilty will remain unpunished and acquitted. Certainly, it is not the right thing to do to find the murderer not guilty of the crime committed. However, there is a good chance for th ose who are professional enough to interpret the law and include substantial reasoning to target acquittal. In this case, justice administration may be a failure especially from the point of view of the prosecution and the victim. This also works the other way around, by which the culprit faces his sentence even on the crime he has not actually committed. This is due to the fact that the presented evidence was so strong that the prosecution team was professional enou

Introduction to Visual Cultures and Narrative Form Essay

Introduction to Visual Cultures and Narrative Form - Essay Example Said (1979, pp. 1-3) in his criticism of orientalism redefined it as the constellation of false assumptions that underlay the attitude of the Western nations towards the Middle East. The Western nations, America and European thereby used orientalism culture and romanticized images of Middle East and Asia as a justification of their colonial and imperial ambitions. Said fiercely denounces this culture and equally criticizes the Arab elites whose practices revolved around internalized ideas from British and American orientalists. The danger linked to the orientalism culture by the West is that some East can treat it as truth thereby affecting relations and ideologies. However, Said (1979) emphasizes that it is hard to label half of the continent as orient and manage to generalize that what applies to Egyptians equally applies to Chinese. Orientalism in this paper supports Edward Said’s critical theory approach to international relations theory where the West forms a one-way imag e of the Oriental. The discussion focuses on definition of terms, orientalism and Occident, and early orientalism and contemporary orientalism. The orient according to Said (1978, p. 4) refers to a representations’ system enclosed by forces from politics that introduced the orient into western consciousness, Western learning, and Western Empire. The system of representation results from the condensation of diverse attributes into a single image not from facts but from perceptions that are regarded as a standard of comparison (Hall, 1992). In addition, orientatlism offers a criterion for evaluation that other world societies rank negatively or positively thereby functioning as an ideology. For the West, the orient is constructed relative to the West and has largely assisted in the definition of Europe or the West since it is views as the contrasting image, experience, idea, and personality (Said, 1979, pp. 1-2). The

MicroEconomics Unit3 & 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MicroEconomics Unit3 & 4 - Assignment Example Railway transportation is a government monopoly in most of the countries. Usually, government prohibits private companies from entering into rail road transport and thus makes it a government monopoly. For example, in India, government is the owner of rail road and no other competitors are allowed in this field. Monopoly eliminates all type of competition and thus results in low quality output. In addition, consumers have no choice to make but forced to buy the item supplied by the monopolist. Consumers are exploited most of the time. Major League Baseball (MLB) is one of the best examples of monopoly in US. Major League Baseball refers to the organization that operates the National League and the American League by a joint organizational structure. The structure developed between the National League and the American League since 1901. In 2000, the two leagues ceased to be separate legal entities, with the commissioners office assuming all responsibilities for running MLB. MLB operates as a single league and it is the most important sports leagues of the United States and Canada. It is currently composed of 30 teams — twenty-nine in the United States and one in Canada. MLB is governed by the Major League Baseball Constitution. Under the direction of the Commissioner of Baseball, Major League Baseball hires and maintains everything related to baseball from umpiring crews to advertisements. It negotiates marketing, labor, and television contracts. After the 1922 U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Major League Baseball maintains a unique, controlling relationship over the sport, including most aspects of minor league

Biography of Julius Caesar Essay Example for Free

Biography of Julius Caesar Essay Julius Caesar was born in 100BC to the aristocratic family of Gaius Caesar and Aurelius. He lost his father when he was sixteen. He got married to Cornelia in 84BC. He refused the order by Sulla to divorce his wife and went on exile to Asia where he learnt ‘the art of war’. He returned to Rome after Sulla’s death and was subsequently elected quaestor. After the death of his wife, He married Pompela, who was related to Pompey [one of his political associates]. In 65BC he was elected curule aedile and three years later the praetor. He became governor of Farther in 61BC and formed the first triumvirate, with Pompey and Crassus, in 60BC. He was elected consul in 59BC and same year married Calprnia. He was appointed governor of Roan Gaul in 58BC and perfected his rule with the conquest of Gallic Gaul. The Roman Civil war began in 59BC and culminated in Caesar’s rise to greater leadership role until on March 15th, 44BC the unprecedented happened. Caesar’s life is captured in prose through the literary prowess demonstrated by Antony Kamm. He shows his depth of knowledge and insight into the complex nature of Caesar’s story. His study of scholastic work proves useful, as it brings fresh insight into understanding the life and character of this great Roman leader. He shows the military leadership Caesar undertook and how it can influence our understanding of leadership in those days, as different from ours. Julius Caesar is presented in the context of human relationships he devised and others that shaped his life. Kamm also narrates cultural, religious and military landscape of the Roman republic in light of Caesar’s journey through life. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Cicero are shown as partners in progress or dishonor. Sevilia and Cleopatra are accorded the plausible position Caesar gave them. III. MAIN IDEA The main idea of the book is that Julius Caesar is more than the stories we have heard; that he is far beyond the myths that surround his life history and that his life is a symbol of balanced service. In the vein, Kamm raises his character to the pinnacle of a superhero worthy of emulation and applaud. IV. SETTING The book contains 155 pages of well constructed account of a roman hero. It details in smooth prose the ‘Pilgrim’s progress’ of Gaius Julius Caesar and his life impacted the entire populace pf ancient Rome. It is written in well separated chapter properly linked and facilitated with ease of coherence. This account is well researched to suit the demands of the twenty-first century. V. IMPORTANT CHARACTERS The story of Julius Caesar is an interesting adventure of a bold man whose life is comparable to that of other great people like Alexandra, the Great. ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’ those are his words; they clearly confirm his strength of character and charisma. He lived true to his dream, dedicated to the course he wished and vehement in the pursuit of the same. In his pursuit of honor, the influence of his mother can not be forgotten. He lost his father when he was only sixteen but his mother took him through the painful lessons of life. Indeed, he is an example of a leader except for the tyrant nature of his leadership style: he led a number of fights to victories against nations with immense military support and ammunitions. There are lesson from every stage of his journey on the Earth, from his growth with his influential parents, to his youth and the concomitant exuberance he enjoyed. His rise to limelight is worthwhile and his fall to betrayal et coup is notable. Cassius acts in conjunction with Brutus culminated in the assassination of Caesar; they suffered for this. Many people have been endeared by this kind of life. They have attempted to cave a niche for themselves n through the use of words and symbols to re-present this roman general. Julius Caesar’s live, as captured by Plutarch in his historical outlook on lives of notable roman generals, speaks volume that can not be expounded by a single perspective of an individual. As a result, there have been many historical accounts and biographies in honor of Caesar apart from William Shakespeare’s play. VI MOST INTERESTING EVENT From the historical account of Cesar’s life, many events are important. He refused the order by Sulla to divorce his wife and went on exile to Asia where he learnt ‘the art of war’. He returned to Rome after Sulla’s death and was subsequently elected quaestor. He later married Pompela, who was related to Pompey [one of his political associates]. In 65BC he was elected curule aedile and three years later the praetor. He became governor of Farther in 61BC and formed the first triumvirate He was elected consul in 59BC. He was appointed governor of Roan Gaul in 58BC and perfected his rule with the conquest of Gallic Gaul. The Roman Civil war began in 59BC and culminated in Caesar’s rise to greater leadership role until on March 15th, 44BC. After his death, Rome continued to war for many years. The most important was his assassination by a ‘coup’ planned by Cassius, supported by Marcus Brutus, his close friend, and other senators. Cassius convinces Brutus of the need to eliminate Julius Caesar because of the possibility of turning Rome’s republic into a monarchy through Caesar’s lineage. The senators agree to this. Cesar approaches senate in the morning of the assassination; on his way, he was warned by a soothsayer to ‘Beware of the Ides of March’. He ignores the warning and heads for the Senate where he rejects a request brought before him, as expected. There, he was beaten to death. He however notices the presence of Brutus among his killers, and exclaims the popular clause: ‘Et tu, Brutus’ meaning ‘And you, Brutus’. Thereafter, Brutus delivers a logical speech at his funeral to convince the Roman people of the reason for Caesar’s assassination which was followed closely by the powerful and excellent rhetoric of Marcus Antonio that moves the mob to drive Marcus and his cohorts from Rome. The triumvirate comprising Marcus Antonio, Octavius and Aemilus become the rulers of Rome and fights to victory with the army of the assassinators; Brutus and Cassius commits suicide in the face of defeat. VII CONCLUDING SENTENCE Kamm has proved his ability to synthesize facts from complex details into smooth prose. And Julius Caesar remains head of state in ancient or modern times applied himself so assiduously to such a range of physical and intellectual activities, and excelled at them all. REFERENCE KAMM A. JULIUS CAESAR: A LIFE. September, 2006.

The Depiction of Women in Indian Cinema

The Depiction of Women in Indian Cinema Introduction Indian Women have excelled in every field and have engraved their names in many parts of the universe, but there still seems to be a long route ahead before she attains equal status in the minds of Indian men. ‘Most agricultural civilizations downgraded the status and potential of women, at least according to modern Western standards and to the implicit standards of hunting-and-gathering societies. Agricultural civilizations were characteristically patriarchal; that is, they were run by men and based on the assumption that men directed political, economic, and cultural life. Furthermore, as agricultural civilizations developed over time and became more prosperous and more elaborately organized, the status of women deteriorated from its initial level. (http://history-world.org/Civilization,%20women_in_patriarchal_societies.htm) In a well-defined patriarchal society like India, even the cinematic world deems to project women as in factual life. This is a good thing as films have mass appeal and at least some if not all carry out a message to the public and try to create awareness. There is a myth that women are characterized in films to prop up the male role rather than characterize them as the one who keeps the narrative structure sinuous. Women are insinuated in films as bearing the burden of sexual objectification that male roles cannot. Hence, they become the bearer, and not the maker of meaning says Laura Mulvey (Mulvey 834). Most Indian women live a silent life with enormous amount of sacrifices and retain their frustration within themselves for the sake of societal pressure. Women in Indian cinema are born with certain assumptions ranging from cult movies to celluloid blockbusters like Sholay to more recent Fashion that employ themselves as in severe gender issues. They are portrayed either as damsels in distress or demented feminists or simple belly-shaking glam dolls whose sole ambition is to attract the attention of the male gender. In many Indian films it is a common trend to insert ‘item numbers which bear no rational connection to the film in anyways but with an assumption that the film is easily associated. As Bindu Nair(2009:53)says, ‘Sometimes the one song ends up making the film a hit, such as ‘Chamma Chamma from the film China gate. Occasionally, do we see a female being the protagonist of a film than merely being objects of sexual desire. In some cases there appears to be a clash between ‘modern feminism and ‘traditional values. Indian cinema often acts like an emotional register and is very resourceful while reading the characterization of ‘Women. I would like to line up the film Paroma and closely pay attention to the way in which a traditional Hindu wife is deprived of her freedom and is confined by the emotional bonding with the family. It appears to be impossible to gather together a woman character as anything beyond the two incarnates Madonna and Whore. Women in India were not expected to express their feelings or to develop their personalities rather get accustomed to their individual subjugation and succumb to the same. To use a women character in a film is to represent a traditional figure as a symbolic image but many a times it is a mere wishful desire. For the present discussion I have chosen the character Paroma as the centre subject, it being a film directed by a female auteur Aparna Sen. The central character in the film Paroma is a middle class Bengali housewife who is played by Raki Gulzar. This film makes a very strong statement about the perception women have on their own body juxtaposed with a mans perception about her. The word Paroma in the ancient Indo-Aryan language which is Sanskrit means ‘the supreme or ‘the very best. In Hindu religion it is used as a prefix to show admiration or reverence. In this film it takes a very long time to bring out her individuality almost to the second half of the film. The film embarks upon the title credits rolling over a Hindu Goddess Kali symbolizing the bestower of liberation. Goddess Kali is an image of the vengeful mother-goddess. Her name Paroma which roughly translates as ‘the ultimate woman in this film is subsumed by the many relational identities associated with her in the family. She is called by different names in the family such as bhabi (sister-in-law), kaki (aunt), mami (aunt), ma (mother) and bahu (daughter-in-law). This marks the beginning of her identity -the given name Paroma being hidden and lost in the different roles she plays within the family. Paromas mother-in-law, we can say the doyen of the family makes a mention to a group of women that she is alive only because her daughter-in-law (Paroma) takes very good care of her and this establishes the fact that Paroma is indeed of very great importance to the family. There is a point being made when the foreign -returned photographers assistant Sarah, tries to understand if Paroma has an identity of her own and this is made sense to her and explained by the patronizing males in the family. But Rahul Rai initiates her identity when he refuses to cast her as Bhabi or Kaki even though Paroma suggests he addresses her either as Bhabi or kaki as he wished indicating her parameters and hinting that she would be safe within these roles which act as barriers for a woman and prohibiting any trespassers within the boundaries of decorum. It is a custom in many Indian families where the female head has to serve hot food to their family and if this is not done they take up the blame for bei ng a terrible house-wife. A scene where Paromas children return from school screaming â€Å"Ma, ma have you not prepared cold coffee for us?† is quite interesting as one can see the duties of a mother in a close-knit Hindu family and yet her limitations are countless when it comes to doing her own things at leisure. For example, Paroma never finds the time to play the traditional instrument Sitar. Her education had an abrupt end and her interest in sitar and poetry fades out because of her responsibilities as a Hindu house-wife. No one in the family pays much attention to what a woman wants in life. Very rarely do we see members of the family obtain the permission or suggestion from Paroma on what is to be done. This is evident as Paromas husband asks his mother if she has any problem in Paroma modeling for their guest Rahul. As the head of the family Paromas mother-in-law agrees and internally suggests its the least they can do to entertain their valuable guest. The scene that preludes her children returning from school is an interesting one where Rahul tries to stare at Paroma taking miniscule bites into a chili in utmost curiosity as if it was a strange personal act where we as audience see a close up of it from the directors angle. The shot is as though Rahul looks at this act through his camera lens. And interesting thing to note is that this lunch scene has no background score weaved into it. The lunch scene starts with the cooing of the cuckoo birds and there is a dead silence which builds up the moment. Women tend to frame themselves and get a grip on what is generally the acceptable norm by the society and in this case a patriarchal one. The male gaze tends to specify the degree of importance a woman has in the society by means of provoking a female to take more interest in her own self. The camera angles as well as the camera movements used by the cinematographer takes the audience to a new world. When a female character takes up a central part of the screen the camera never prowls at a woman. But when she is performing an action the camera always has a tendency to creep around her body voyeuristically. This all adds up to turning a woman into a spectacle. For example, In Chandni bar directed by Madhur Bhandarkar whose fixation for every movie is ‘real has many scenes set up in a dance bar where women are scanned top to bottom by the men in the bar. The natural contours of the body are made distorted by unnatural ways of dressing to emphasize certain body proportions and for this very reason they are shot from a low angle or a high angle to reveal cleavage. The men in Indian cinema either projected as ‘romantic heroes or the ‘bad guy are indubitably majestic on screen space unlike our female characters that always tend to lead a surrendered life even on screen. As Vrinda Mathur (2009: 66) says, ‘The male characters of Indian cinema, i.e. the heroes(those knights in shining armour) and the villains (those over-energetic sharks) move around the space of the movie like players in a deadly choreographed game of chess with the women characters as sacrificial pawns. It is quite apparent from the beginning that Rahul the photographer has a particular interest in capturing beauty. One can stand by this point from the way he captures Goddess Kali on the day of the religious function which is the opening scene of the film. By this one can confirm that he has interest in aesthetically appealing subjects. Many of his subjects seem to be centered on female oriented issues. We can justify this fact by encompassing his interest to capture the â€Å"Indian house wife†. He proposes to pay peculiar attention to Paroma from the beginning stating that she is a very beautiful traditional Indian woman. As the film grips along, his fascination turns to personal from being a professional admirer of her beauty. In reciprocation to that we see Paroma indulging and getting a sense of sexual undercurrent and falling for the same. She tries to halt the modeling sessions but due to mere persistence from the family she does so to accommodate the guest in every po ssible way. As the modeling sessions go on she is made to realize her radiance and elegance by Rahuls gaze. Although she seems hesitant and apprehensive like for instance she covers her saree over her ankle in the first modeling session. But eventually she tends to react amicably to Rahuls desires. Rahul makes her realize her value and teaches her to see the world from a different perspective. This is symbolically shown when Rahul suggests to Paroma to see her own city from a high angle where one gets a birds eye view of the same. As Anshoo Sharma (2009: 111) rightly says: ‘It is very symbolic when he says -learn to live life dangerously, because it is only when one is ready to experiment and take chances that there is a possibility of gaining something valuable in the process. And in a womans case that ‘something is realization of oneself as a separate entity complete and whole and not a mere extension of the rib of Adam. The films that focus on women protagonists showcase their search for self through their bodies. This is quite outstanding in the film Chandni bar. Mumtaz character played by Tabu the protagonist is forcefully sent by her maternal uncle to be a show girl in a dance bar. Her major source of income was from performing in the dance bar. She would maximum need to groove her body to the music and there would be scores of men willing to shed their money on her for the very own reason voyeuristic desires. This womans body is given the penultimate magnitude in many of the films we see. And in these films the act tends to start with a rebellious nature and the instrument being their body. As Jasbir Jain (2009: 121) has observed, Rebel women are portrayed with ridicule and comedy. Rebelliousness need not always be conclusive or even approved within the narrative structure. At times it may be part of the discourse on modernity and perceived as a potential threat to patriarchy through the values of education/westernization/independence. In a scene from Mirch Masala (1985) the protagonist Smitha Patil directs the tax collector to drink water from the other side of the river. She says: (This side is where human drink and the other side is where the animals drink) This can be an indirect statement made to the tax collector referring him to being a ruthless animal. Although the other women tend to run away at the sight of them approaching Smitha Patil stands still reflecting her character instantly that nothing can demoralize her. Having said much about rebelliousness and insubordination, it sometimes plays the part of a discourse taken towards modernity in a sense that it threatens the patriarchal structure. This can be called to mark the beginning of a revolutionary period that breaks the stereotypical and conventional thoughts of a society. A female protagonist who is shown to be wronged in the society and due to this suffers a great deal in life. In other words, she is said to be victimized who endure the consequences. If one notices it is always the female who bears the brunt of all the misfortunes. Possibly owing this to their beauty and morality they are able to capture the hearts of the men. But this seems to be taken for granted by the men. Now, having discussed about how women are portrayed and the penalties they pay in return are a myriad when it comes to how men are showcased. Although to digress a little from the centre of discussion, it would be interesting to see how men would react if there was a reverse of these situations. But what really happens in this case is that the men do not like to be treated as anything below their dignity even if it was unintentional. As Anshoo Sharma (2009: 114) has rightly said, ‘They vent their anger, shun the women, and make them feel guilty. They are never shown to be in a compromising position -groveling or pleading with their women. From this we can conclude saying there are varying degrees of norms set for men and women in this patriarchal structure. This is otherwise called double standards of the male outlook being more evident. Paromas husband who is away on a business trip to Mumbai tends to sweet talk his secretary to fulfill his desires. What would be interesting to note at this point is that this particular scene goes unnoticed throughout the film. Other than his secretary no one knows the true story and no one would even come to know because the secretary is about to get married. In that case the secretary is not going to reveal this incident hoping to maintain her dignity and not ruin her chances of getting married. In the shot after the secretary leaves, he abuses her and slams the door. There is stark contrast in the way this matter is subdued as compared to what happens to Paroma eventually. One may argue that Paroma also had the freedom to keep up to her appointments with Rahul as her husband was away. Husbands do not necessarily offer the right kind of attention that is needed. Though this is an example of adulterated behavior by Paroma, her husband is not better in this stance. Much later Paroma is being ostracized by the family for the very reason that Rahul sends her a copy of the life magazine where her photograph is explicitly put up with his signature. This entirely shocks the family and creates a massive pandemonium. She is completely isolated from the family and her mother-in-law falls sick. Paromas husband unreasonably blames her for his mother falling ill and simultaneously tells her that he would teach the kids and that he does not want his kids to be taught by a whore. After Rahul has left to Greece her interest in house-hold work lacks interest. A woman, who is so devoted and energetic to the family needs once upon a time, completely does her share of chores listlessly. An observant husband asks her if she is keeping well, distressed reciprocates her absent-minded stupor. After the husband is aware of the photograph he condemns her and makes up his mind to shift to the guest room. In countering that Paroma confronts him and questions him if he has never committed mistakes in his life? And a point blank response No! says it all. One scene shows her husband frantically searching for a pair of cufflinks and scatters the draws and cupboards. Paroma who is silently watching gives a hand once her husband asks her maid to look for it. Paroma picks it up from the right draw and is diffident whether to hand it to him or leave it on the table. We see Paroma in her initial behavior as in early part of the film. Is this saying that she is attempting to get things back to normal? As Shoma A. Chatterji (2002: 76) aptly says, ‘The fact that she knows precisely where things around the house, is a pointer to the desperation a committed housewife like Paroma can be pushed to. It also proves her vulnerability. The irony is that the chores she did with such love and affection can be done with equal efficiency by Kamala, the maid, minus of course, the love and the affection Paroma put into them. Paroma is deemed to be portraying an equal status of a maid in this illustration. However it will be termed as an un-paid servant. Is this the kind of image that women would like to see on screen? Paroma being a strong character should be standing up for herself. Even though her routing was a little unusual to vast majority, this is Paromas point of view. The rupture created between Paroma and her extended family exposes the cruelty of patriarchal insistence and poses a threat to the male dominated society. The image of a mother she carries takes a toll when she puts her relationship before her motherhood. This does not necessarily mean she is insensitive to her childrens feelings. Every human requires a companion and in this case her determinants are surrounded by feelings of pleasure. As Shoma A. Chatterji (2002: 77) says, â€Å"Hinduism and the patriarchy it functions within, insists on placing the mother on a pedestal, which is natural and logical extension of the worship of the Mother Goddess to include the family unit. The pedestal is conveniently used by the patriarchal family to reduce the same mother to silence, absence and marginality, politically constructed to seemingly connote to the woman concerned.† As the narrative progresses, we embark upon something close to a peak. Paroma is disheartened with the way her attempt to reconcile things with family was treated unfavorably that she takes a drastic decision to end her life. She is admitted to a hospital and is diagnosed with a brain hemorrhage where the doctor says her hair needs to be shorn off for the purpose of an x-ray. On hearing this Paromas daughter sobs at her mothers hair being shaven off. One can notice a sense of hesitation from the members of the family as soon as they are informed that the surgery would do Paroma some good. Does this signify their hesitation to her as a person back into the family or just vacillation to the surgery? If it is evident that a surgery will save Paroma from more harm and why would anyone have double thoughts about this. It is clear that the family is in a dilemma to accept Paroma after such an incident and worried if the society would brand them as we know they would. To speak for majority of the families in India societal pressure plays a huge role in any decision the family makes. This is doubled up if the family has many girls in the family. If any decision that is taken has to reflect on the society then where is the question of living life to the fullest. One can understand if there is debate with regard to being responsible but not to the extent where the society rules ones life. This indicates a new beginning to Paroma or an end to all the discomfiture after all. As Mini Nanda (2009: 174) says, ‘Tonsuring of her hair seems to be a process of sloughing off her past, the pain and the humiliation as well as thrusting a widowhood on her. Paroma stays rigid that she will not speak any of her family members. She requests for a diary and a pen and begins to empty her feelings into the book. This self-defining act could also be looked at as a prolongation to the letters she used to write Rahul. She mentions the daily activities that happen in her nursing room. Paromas friend Sheila gets her a paper cutting of a write about Rahul, which Paroma chooses to let go standing near her window. This could be a mark made to erase the smallest trail of her past and to start a new beginning with vigor. Paroma has a conversation with her friend Sheila where she asks Sheila to get her a job as a sales assistant. When her family and the Doctor insist she goes through psychotherapy, she boldly says she has no guilt feeling inside her for her to go through any therapy. We see a fresh air of confidence swing past Paromas character. One can notice the diary writing to have started in the end of the film. Thereby stating the initiative Paroma has taken to express her feeling. Paroma for the first time voices her opinion to her family members about her ideas to work as a sales assistant. Even after each one trying hard to persuade Paroma to go through the therapy, so that her life could flow in the direction as before she stands up for her self. This act is again refreshing from the Paroma earlier on in the film and the rejuvenated Paroma. The climax has us all thinking metamorphic derivations. We see Paroma spill the beans to her shocked family about her new plans of taking up a job. And then her husbands reaction is worth noting at this point as it comes as a shocker to him. He is taken by surprise at Paromas decision and asks what people would think if his wife worked as a sales assistant for a very menial pay. In spite of all the pushing and probing from the family Paroma stands stable no matter what her family brands her as. She pans left to notice the plant sitting by the window sill and the name flashes across her mind ‘Woh Patte! Calendula kaise? Haan Euphobia contenopholia Krishnapallavi!? (Those leaves! Not Calendula! Yes, Euphobia contenopholia) There by telling us that she has definitely come out stronger than before by finding her inner-self and may be more. As Anshoo Sharma (2009: 117) says: ‘In conclusion one can say that like phoenix she rises from her ashes stronger, more capable. It is the rebirth of Durga , the Paroma who has realized her ‘Shakthi but in a new form, a different context. References: Bindoo Nair (2009) ‘The Female bodies and the Male Gaze: Laura Mulvey and Indian Cinema in Jasbir Jain and Sudha Rai (ed.) Films and Feminism, Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Vrinda Mathur (2009) ‘Women in Indian Cinema: Fictional Constructs, in Jasbir Jain and Sudha Rai (ed.) Films and Feminism, Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Anshoo Sharma (2009) ‘Crossing the Boundaries: Woman in search of Self, in Jasbir Jain and Sudha Rai (ed.) Films and Feminism, Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Shoma A. Chatterji (2002) The Cinema of Aparna Sen, Calcutta: Parumitha Publication. Mini Nanda (2009) ‘Symbolism and Space in Aparna Sens Paroma and Deepa Mehtas Fire, in Jasbir Jain and Sudha Rai (ed.) Films and Feminism, Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Mulvey L. (2975) ‘Visual Pleasure and narrative cinema, Screen, 16, 3, Autumn

The Importance Of Flood Inundation Modeling Environmental Sciences Essay

The Importance Of Flood Inundation Modeling Environmental Sciences Essay In recent years, flood inundation models become important increasingly in both flood forecasting and damage estimation as it provides the basis for the decision making of flood risk management. Such models are mainly used to simulate flood inundation extent and depths at different sections of the studied flood rivers. With their help, hydrologists are able to study and analyse the hydrologic systems of floods well. This project was initiated to further understand the flood model Lisflood-FP global climate change and predict the future intensity of precipitation and temperature in Singapore. This will allow engineers and other professionals to gauge the intensity of the future weather and conduct necessary works to prevent unwanted event like flooding, from happening. Background Floods are the most destructive and recurring natural disasters all over the world and a wide range of the world population and their property is at the risk of flooding. Thus, one of the crucial tasks in quantifying the damage estimation of the flood events is that determining the reliable prediction of potential extent and water depth of flood inundation. In General, flood inundation predications are used to service the decision-making in design urban planning in future. The principle of predication are derived from single realisation of numerical hydraulic models and applied on a forward-modeling framework (BatesandDe Roo, 2000). Despite calibration studies are underway to determine a single parameter set that optimises the model fit to some observed data, the confidence level of the predicted results becomes a major problem for decision makers. If the uncertainty is considered in terms of input parameters (e.g. geographical information, hydrological data, hydraulics parameters, and boundary conditions), only a small portion of a typical issue might be regarded as certain or deterministic. The rest inevitably contains uncertainty that arises from the complexity of the system, lack of knowledge or human-induced errors. In previous studies, the uncertainty sources associated with the flood inundation modeling have been generalised into three categories, such as input data, hydraulics parameters and model structures (Bales and Wagner, 2009). Different uncertainty techniques (e.g. Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation) have been applied into the flood inundation modelling to assess the uncertainty derived from one or multiple factors. However, limited studies have been further discussed the sensitivity of uncertainty sources like roughness coefficients. Moreover, the uncertainty analysis methods applied in previous studies relied heal Objective and Scope This report is a write up on the research of Final Year Project, Flood Inundation Modeling under stochastic uncertainty, had been carried on by the author for the last 10 months. The objective of this project is to systematically study and analyse the impact or effects of uncertainties associated with parameter of roughness coefficient in flood inundation modeling, which is Lisflood-FP Modeling. The predicted data can be used for the predication of future flood inundation and damage estimation under risk analysis. In this report, the following preliminary study works will be covered. To review the one-dimensional (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D) hydraulic models for flood inundation modeling, and to review the uncertainty sources associated with the flood inundation modeling process and the available uncertainty analysis methods. To conduct a Monte Carlo simulation to assess the propagation of uncertainty associated with roughness coefficients to the results of flood inundation modeling, in terms of water depths and inundation extent. The scope of this project includes a comprehensive literature review on flood inundation modeling process and recognition of the uncertainty effects from various sources. On the basis of literature review, the impact of the uncertainty of roughness coefficients is to be analysed a hypothetical study case. A conclusion will be made according to the preliminary data analysis and the ideas for futures work will be shaped. Methodology (GLUE) Annual reports of companies and information from public domain were reviewed extensively to identify current GHG emissions reduction measures that are adopted by shipping companies. Academic research papers and reports from agencies such as IMO, DNV and World Shipping Council (WSC) were examined to gather information on the potential and effectiveness of the measures and to identify critical issues. Primary research was conducted through a two-pronged approach of surveys and interviews. Survey questions were designed in accordance to the objective of this study and the questionnaires were posted to container liner shipping companies, both with and without offices in Singapore. A small number of survey responses were anticipated and therefore the surveys were used to capture ground information. The interviews with governmental agency, classification societies and selected shipping companies serve as the second pillar of the primary information collection in this study. Report Structure Figure 1. Report structureThis report includes 5 chapters as shown in Error: Reference source not found. A list of abbreviations and a glossary are also included. This report consists of 6 chapters shown in Figure 1.1. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction of background and scope of this study. Chapter 2 reviews the hydraulic models used for flood inundation modeling, the associated uncertainty sources and the uncertainty analysis methods. In Chapter 3, a 2-D hydraulic model is established for a study case adapted from a real world river system, where the model configuration and simulation results are introduced. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 discuss the effects of the uncertainty of the roughness coefficients on flood inundation modeling. In Chapter 6, a summary is made and the ideas for future studies are presented. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS The information acquired through various literature reviews are discussed in this chapter to understand the background of floods and flood hazards, as well as the importance of flood inundation modeling. On the other hand, the 1-D/2-D hydrodynamic models for simulating both channel and floodplain flows were reviewed respectively. Subsequently, an overview of this chapter is provided. 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Floods Throughout the long human history, floods are the most frequently occurring natural hydrological phenomena, which consist of the futures such as water depth, flow velocity, and temporal and spatial dynamics. The regular-magnitude floods occur every year at the expected stream flow range. It is beneficial to provide fertilise soil with nutrients, transport large quantities of sediment and deposit on the floodplain, and clean-up a river with any stagnant contaminates. However, some floods become disasters due to the extreme events, which happen suddenly without any warning, such as storm, dam break, storm surge and tsunami. As a result, their significant impacts cause imponderable damage on human society and ecosystems, particularly in terms of life loss and property damage. Flood can be defined as water body rises to overflow the lands where is not normally submerged with the perspective of flooding wave advancement (Ward, 1978). This definition includes two main flood types, namely river floods and costal floods. River floods are mostly arising from excessively or long-drawn-out rainfall, thus the river discharge flow exceeding the stream channels capacity and overtopping the banks and embankments. Especially in urban area, floods may also take place at the sewage drains when the heavy storms water surcharged in and overflow the drains. In addition, some natural or man-induced catastrophe could result in the water level is risen up suddenly and then overflow the river bank or dam. The reasons why the costal floods appear are usually originated from the severe cyclonic weather systems in terms of a combination of high tides, elevated sea level and storm surges with large waves. The inundation at coastal areas may results from the overflowing as the water level exceeds the crest level of defense, or from the overtopping as the waves run up and break over the defense, or defense structure failure itself (Reeve and Burgess, 1994). Furthermore, tsunami can cause long ocean waves due to the great earthquake and resulting in coastal floods. 2.1.2 The flood hazard Flood hazard is defined that those floods generate pop-up threats to the life and properties of human beings at the flood-prone areas where man had encroached into. The hazard level is validated by a combination of physical exposure and human vulnerability to the flood inundation process. Floods have been regarded as the top of the most destructive hazards from everlasting. In China, floods account for about 1/3 of all the natural catastrophes and responsible for 30% of the overall economic losses (Cheng, 2009). Furthermore, some south-east Asian countries are flood-prone areas, such as Indonesia, Thailand, and Myanmar, which are bearing the disasters from the frequent river and coastal floods. In 2004, the mega-quake, which exceeds magnitude of 9.0, induced a series of destructive tsunamis with the highest wave of 30 meters along the coasts bordering the Indian Ocean. There were over 230,000 victims lost their lives in around 14 countries. Hence, Indonesia was the hardest hit, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand (Paris et al., 2007). Moreover, the tropical cyclone Nargis happened on 2nd May, 2008 attacked the Southwest Coast of Myanmar. There were 24 million people been affected and approximately 50,000 to 100,000 people been killed (Kenneth, 2008). However, flooding is not only the critical issue in Asian, but also in the entire world. In 1927, the United States met the most devastating flooding of the Mississippi River in American history. The levee system was broken out and submerged 27,000 km2. Because of millions of population living along the Mississippi River, it led over 400 million US dollars in loss and 246 human deaths (Barry, 1998). In Europe, Netherlands had affected by the critical river floods in the past years since the most areas are below the sea level. The worst flood disaster happened in 1953 killed 1,835 people, covered almost 200,000 hectares of land, destroyed 3,000 family houses and 200 farms, and drowned 47,000 heads of cattle (Lamb and Knud, 1991). The facts mentioned above proven that the global flooding management is increasingly vital to protect millions of worldwide population from the severe threat. However, because of the high costs and inherent uncertainties, it is impossible and unsustainable to build up the absolute flood protection system, but it can be managed to reduce the hazard to lives and property by the most cost-effective measures. Therefore, flood inundation models become the most useful predictive tools which are used to evaluate and analyse the flood hazards, as well as to improve and mitigate the flood risk management. 2.1.3 The Importance of flood inundation modeling From the perspectives of physical processes and anthropogenic influence, the floodplain is a dynamic flow environment. Since it is much difficult to handle the confliction between maximising benefit-over-cost ratio and minimising the human impact, the application of inundation modeling becomes the most likely moderate approach for flood management strategy. Actually, the final objective of flood inundation studies could be minimise susceptibility and vulnerability to loss in both economy and human lives aspects (Parker, 1995). Therefore, it is necessary to use flood inundation models to simulate and predict the possible impacts of floodplain development. The principle of flood inundation models is to allow the upstream flood flow to discharge directly to the downstream flood extent. Those models become much valuable and helpful flood predictive tools which are able to apply in different real and virtual scenarios for analysis. In comparison with those traditional statistical models, which are according to all the numeral data observations of past flood events, the largest advantages of physically-based inundation models are their capability of spatial and temporal variables in terms of discharge, water level, velocity, flow duration and inundation extent, on the processive flood events. Meanwhile, they also support the hydro-system operation, flood warning, risk quantification and decision making for the design and planning of flood mitigation measures. Besides, the flood risk maps are able to be determined on the basis of the flood inundation modeling results. They are static two-dimensional maps indicating the flood probability with flood depth and extents, which is usually generated through flood uncertainty quantification techniques, i.e. Monte Carlo Simulation. They are widely adopted by government and insurance company to delineate areas of land at high risk and guide the investment and emergency response strategies. 2.2 LISFLOOD-FP Flood Inundation Model A flood inundation model is an intergraded flood simulation model-chain which includes an estimation of stochastic rainfall, a simulation of rainfall-runoff and an inundation model of flood development (McMillan and Brasington, 2008). For stochastic rainfall estimation of certain catchment, according to the available precipitation records, a long synthetic rainfall series could be created. Hereafter, these series are applied into a rainfall-runoff model to generate the corresponding discharge estimation series. And the estimations of discharge are imported into a 2-D hydrodynamic model, which utilizes high-resolution elevation data to enable urban floodplain modeling at the smallest scales and paves the way for additional modules for vulnerability and damage assessment. Finally, the flood inundation model is expected to run within a proven uncertainty estimation framework and subsequently to compare with the real-world scenarios for model calibration and allow explicit uncertainties analysis. LISFLOOD-FP model is one of the most popular flood inundation models all over the world (Bates and De Roo, 2000). It is a coupled 1D/2D hydraulic model on the basis of a raster grid. LISFLOOD-FP model treats the flooding as an intelligent volume-filling process from the perspective of hydraulic principles by embodying the key physical notions of mass conservation and hydraulic connectivity. 2.2.1Principles of LISFLOOD-FP Model 2.2.1.1Model Structure and Concepts The basic components of the LISFLOOD-FP model is a raster Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (Bates and De Roo, 2000) of resolution and accuracy suf ¬Ã‚ cient to identify surface roughness for both the channel (location and slope) and those elements of the  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡oodplain topography (dykes, embankments, depressions and former channels) considered necessary to  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ood inundation prediction. A  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ood consists of a large, low amplitude wave propagating down valley (Bates and De Roo, 2000). When the bankful  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow depth is reached, water stops to be contained only in the main river channel and water spills onto adjacent shallow gradient  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡oodplains. These  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡oodplains act either as temporary stores for this water or additional routes for  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow conveyance. C:UsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers703775521QQWinTempRichOle[[emailprotected]){LA]KX[A1$UE8M8AV.jpg Figure 1 Conceptual model of the LISFLOOD-FP flood inundation model (Wilson, 2003a; 2003b) 2.2.1.2 Assumptions for LISFLOOD-FP Model In order to design a physical model simulating the flood development and to simply the numerical computation, the assumptions are stated as followings: The flow within channel can be represented by the kinematic wave approximations. The channel is assumed to be so wide and shallow that the wetted perimeter is approximated by the channel width. The flood flow can be gradually varied. Both In-channel and Out-of-channel flooding flow are treated as raster grids by using a series of storage discretised cells. Flow between storage cells can be calculated using analytical uniform flow formulas, i.e. the Saint-Venant and Manning equations. There is no exchange of momentum between main channel and floodplain flows, only mass is exchanged. 2.2.2 In-Channel Flow The hydraulic models consist of two main processes, representing the flow within the channel (In-channel Flow) and flow on the floodplain (Out-of-channel Flow). But we ignore the effects at the channel- ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡oodplain interface development of intense shear layers leads to a strongly turbulent and three-dimensional  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow  ¬Ã‚ eld. In this project, one of the objectives is to quantify the uncertainty associated with the inundation process. In-channel Flow is defined that the channel flow is below bankful depth. Thus, the flow process is represented by using a classical one-dimensional hydraulic routine approach (1-D approach), which is described in terms of a simplification of the full one-dimensional St. Venant equation system (Knight and Shiono, 1996), which leads to a kinematic wave approximation obtained by eliminating local acceleration, convective acceleration and pressure terms in the momentum equation. 2.2.2.1 Saint-Venant Equations Due to simplicity of computation and ease of parameterization, the one-dimensional (1-D) Saint-Venant equations have been the most widely adopted approach for unsteady open channel flow. The partial differential Saint-Venant equations comprise the continuity and momentum equations under the following assumptions (Chow et al. 1988): Flow is 1-D, and depth and velocity vary only in the longitudinal direction of the channel. Velocity is constant, and the water surface is horizontal across, any section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Flow varies gradually along the channel so that hydrostatic pressure prevails and vertical accelerations can be neglected. The longitudinal axis of the channel is approximated as a straight line. The bottom slope of the channel is small and the channel bed is fixed. The effects of scour and deposition are negligible. Resistance coefficients for steady uniform turbulent flow are applicable so that relationships (e.g. Mannings equation) can be used to describe resistance effects. The fluid is incompressible and constant density throughout the flow. Therefore, the continuity equation states that the change in discharge with distance downstream (), and the change in the cross-sectional area of flow over time () are in balance. Thus, the lateral inflow ( ) to or from the channel and floodplain can be expressed as (Wilson, 2004). (2.1) where Q is the volumetric discharge in channel [L3/T], x is the longitudinal distance along the channel [L], t is time interval [T], A is the cross-sectional area of flow [L2] and q is the lateral inflow from other sources per unit length along channel [L2/T]. The momentum equation states that total applied forces is equal to the rate of momentum change in each unit of flow, plus the net outflow of momentum (Chow et al. 1988). For this project, the full dynamic wave equations can be simplified in terms of kinematic wave model. The assumptions are that local acceleration, convective acceleration and pressure terms are ignored, and the flow gravitational forces are equal to the frictional resistance force. The momentum equation can be written as: (2.2) where is the down-slope of the bed [-] and is the slope of friction [-] Roughness coefficients are defined as the resistance to flood flows in channels and floodplains. To introduce Mannings roughness ( n ), the Manning Equation is chosen. Therefore, the friction slope in the momentum equation can be described as: (2.3) where R is hydraulic radius [L]. Substituting the hydraulic radius, the momentum equation can be written as: (2.4) where n is the Mannings coefficient of friction and P  is the wetted perimeter of the flow [L]. However, for the Equation (2.4), there are some limitations such as only considering the down gradient hydraulic characteristics, and neglecting the backwater effects and shock waves. 2.2.2.2 Numerical Solution The 1-D Saint-Venant Equations are discretized using numerical methods of a finite difference approximation (Chow, 1988). Stream flow and cross section values are calculated with a simple linear scheme that uses a backward-difference method to derive the finite difference equations. Therefore, they are combined to obtain the following equations: (2.5) where Q is the volumetric discharge in channel [L3/T], x is the longitudinal distance along the channel [L], t is time interval [T], q is the lateral inflow from other sources per unit length along channel [L2/T], and is the geometry and frication factor of channel which is written as: (2.6) where is the Manning friction coefficient [T/ L1/3], is the channel width [L], and is the channel slope. Meanwhile, the finite difference equation can be set up in order to calculate the quantity Qi,j at each node (i, j), where i represents the space and j the time : (2.7) (2.8) in order to create a linear equation, the value of Q in the expression of Equation (2.5) is found by averaging the following values : (2.9) Note: All Equations variables refer to the definitions in Figure 2 C:UsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers703775521QQWinTempRichOleH37F%N4L(VS%DNUG`X_(I4E.jpg Figure 2 Finite difference box for the linear kinematic wave equation 2.2.3. Channel Discretisation by Mesh Generation In order to conduct the kinematic wave simulation, the flow domain is spatially discretised into discrete elements or grid cells to represent the arbitrary modling area by numerical mesh generation process. It starts at the inflow point of each grid cell with indicator of the direction to the next downstream cell. With the help of Airborne Laser Altimetry (LiDAR) and Stereo Air-photogrammetry, the high-resolution DEM grid cells are able to contain topographic data, such as channel width, bed slope, manning friction coef ¬Ã‚ cient and bankful depth. Therefore, the numerical solution can be approximate obtained with the advantage of high-performance digital computers and high numerical stability. In this project, the regular high resolution rectangular grids mesh generation is adopted. However, despite that the mesh resolution in the region is increased, it resulted in less smooth of friction coefficients. This is because the polygonal area over which the various friction contributi ons were averaged was reduced. 2.2.4 Out-of-Channel Flow Out-of-Channel flow (i.e. Floodplain Flow) is defined that water is transferred from the channel to the adjacent overlying floodplain areas when bankful depth is exceeded by flood. However, the 1-D approach is not suitable to simulate the floodplain flows due to its incapability of capturing velocity variations and free surface across the channel. Thus, floodplain flows can be similarly described in terms of classical continuity and momentum equations, discretized over a grid of square cells, which allows the model to represent 2-dimensional dynamic flow on the floodplain. Therefore, we assume that each cell is treated as a storage volume and the change in cell volume over time is therefore equal to the  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uxes into and out of it during the time step (See Figure 3, Wilson, 2003a; 2003b). (2.10) where is the volume variation [L3] of each cell during time [T], and , , and are the volumetric flow rate [L3/T] respectively coming from the up, the down, the left and the right adjacent cells of the grid. C:UsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers703775521QQWinTempRichOle7L0})O%E([emailprotected] Figure 3 Flows between cells on the floodplain with LISFLOOD-FP (Wilson, 2003a; 2003b) Flow between two cells is assumed to be simply a function of the free surface height difference between these cells, hence the following discretisation of continuity Equation (2.1) (See Figure 4 5) (2.11) (2.12) (2.13) where   is the water free surface height [L] at the cell node (i,j), and are the cell dimensions [L],    is the effective grid scale Mannings friction coefficient for the floodplain, and  and  describe the volumetric flow rates [L3/T] between the floodplain cell node (i,j). C:UsersuserDesktop1.jpg Figure 4 Discretization scheme for floodplain grid C:UsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers703775521QQWinTempRichOleM`G%`D63ODY2$7)H3G4O7OQ.jpg Figure 5 Floodplain Flows between Two Cells The flow depth,  hflow, represents the depth through which water can flow between two cells, and is defined as the difference between the highest water free surface in the two cells and the highest bed elevation (this definition has been found to give sensible results for both wetting cells and for flows linking floodplain and channel cells). 2.3 Uncertainty in flooding inundation modeling It is the key factor to reduce or prevent the level of flood hazards that ensuring prediction accurately of the flood inundation area and providing reliable information of risk. In general, the result produced by flood models is only a single deterministic prediction for the peak flow of the flood. However, the confidence level of the output results would be affected by the uncertainty of input data in terms of peak flow, the topographic data, and the model parameters. As a result, the uncertainty associated with the flood inundation modeling is seldom quantified, It most likely because that the sources of uncertainty are not totally realised and lack of available data to study uncertainty. Uncertainty analysis of LISFLOOD-FP modeling has been studied in recent years. From those reports, the sources of uncertainty can be summarised into three major catalogues in terms of model data inputs, hydraulics parameters and model structures. 2.3.1Model data inputs 2.3.1.1 Hydrologic and meteorological data One of the most dominant input parameters is the design flow, which comes from flood frequency analysis and provides the boundary condition. However, the uncertainty of steamflow is inherent since it is derived from the stage-discharge rating curves on the basis of flood records, especially for the high-return-period flow events. In summary, there are four types of uncertainties associated with the hydrograph of steamflows, namely (1) watershed characteristics; (2) storm precipitation dynamics; (3) infiltration and (4) antecedent conditions. However, the storm precipitation dynamics has the largest impact on the prediction. Furthermore, the overall prediction of hydrologic models could be increase due to uncertainty-added by lacking of understanding of the spatial and temporal variability in precipitation, evapotranspiration, and infiltration. 2.3.1.2 Topographic data The topographic data is including both land surface digital elevation model (DEM) and river bed bathymetry. It is one of the dominant factors to predict the flood inundation area accurately. It does not only influence the hydrologic modeling process, but also the mapping water surface elevations. Firstly, the extraction of watershed characteristics (e.g. slope, streams and watershed boundaries) from DEM is affected by its resolution, leading to varied discharge values estimated from the hydrologic model. Secondly, the resolution of DEM and the accuracy of bathymetry affect the cross sections extracted for 1-D channel flow simulation and the interpolated meshes (or grids) for 2-D overland flow simulation. Thirdly, Bales and Wagner (2009) investigated the Tar River basin and revealed that high-quality topographic data, along with the appropriate application of hydraulic models are likely the most important factors affecting the horizontal extent and vertical water surface elevations of flood inundation maps. 2.3.2 Model structures The flood inundation models are also sensitive to the channel geometry in terms of cross sections number, cross-sectional spacing in between, finite-element mesh quality and hydraulic structures. Additionally, the type of model (1-D, 2-D or coupled) used in simulating the river hydrodynamics also brings uncertainty to the overall results. The geometry representation of channel is more critical to 2-D and (3-D) models since the elevation is defined at each mesh node distributed throughout the channel and floodplains. Moreover, the mesh generation strategies will affect 2- and 3-D models not only in the prediction of inundation area, but also the computational time (Horritt et al. 2006). 2.3.3 Hydraulics parameters Hydraulic models (e.g. 1-D, 2-D or coupled) used to simulate the river hydrodynamics and water surface elevation in floodplain are sensitive to a set of model parameters. Friction values (Mannings roughness coefficient, n), accounting for effects of variable cross sections, non-uniform slope, vegetation and structures at the sub-grid scale, have a significant impact on hydraulic simulations (Merwade et al., 2008). Mannings roughness coefficient (n), which is commonly assigned by using standard look-up tables for different substrate types, can range from 0.035 to 0.065 in the main channel, and 0.080 to 0.150 in the floodplains (Chow et al. 1988). Distributed data throughout the floodplain are seldom available as a basis for estimating friction values for the model domain. Many of the uncertainties in hydraulic models are lumped in the Mannings n value, such that the models can be calibrated through adjusting such a parameter. The difference in magnitude and changing channel conditions will cause the optimal set of parameters to be found in a slightly different area of the parameter space for each different flood event. Wohl (1998) analysed the uncertainty of Mannings n relative to a commonly used step-backwater model for channel reaches in five canyon rivers. The results indicated that the uncertainties in discharge estimation resulting from the roughness coefficients in step-backwater modeling of paleo-floods were comparable to or lower than those associated with other methods of indirectly estimation flood discharges. Pappenberger et al. (2005) analysed the uncertainty caused by Mannings n (range from 0.001 to 0.9) in the unsteady flow component of the 1-D model HEC-RAS. The results showed that many parameter sets could perform equally well even with extreme values. However, this was dependent on the model region and boundary conditions. Pappenberger et al. (2007) employed a fuzzy set approach for calibrating flood inundation models under the uncertainties of roughness and cross-section. The roughness of channel has been identified as more sensitive than the standard deviation of the cross-sectio n. 2.4 Integrated modeling and uncertainty analysis framework Flood risk maps are critical to help manage the risk of inundation, which are generated based on good understanding of the uncertainty associated with the various variables involved in flood inundation modeling. A sequential process is normally adopted, where hydrologic analysis starts first, and then hydraulic analysis and geospatial processing will follow. Merwade et al. (2008) proposed a conceptual fr